Definition
A model is a thinking strategy to explain a process, framework, or phenomenon.
Various commonly used models grouped by categories, are briefly explained below. Follow the links to learn more.
Situational Leadership Models
Situational leadership models describe ways to tailor one’s leadership style to meet the needs of the individual and the project team.
| Id | Model | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 1.1 | Ken Blanchard's Situational Leadership® II | A leadership model that emphasizes adapting leadership styles based on an individual’s development level. It defines four leadership styles—Directing, Coaching, Supporting, and Delegating—and matches them with four development levels, ranging from low competence/high commitment to high competence/high commitment. The model helps leaders provide the right amount of guidance and support to enhance team performance and growth. |
| 1.2 | OSCAR Model | A coaching framework that guides goal-oriented conversations through five steps: Outcome, Situation, Choices, Actions, and Review. It starts by defining the goal (Outcome) and assessing the current state (Situation). Then, it explores possible solutions (Choices) and identifies concrete steps (Actions). Finally, progress is evaluated and adjusted as needed (Review), making it a structured approach for effective coaching. |
Communication Models
Project success relies on effective communication. Communication models show how the sender’s and receiver’s perspectives, the communication medium, and differences between expectations and reality affect communication. With diverse, multicultural teams and remote stakeholders, these models help improve communication by highlighting different styles and methods to make it more efficient and effective.
| Id | Model | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 2.1 | Cross-Cultural Communication | This model, developed by Browaeys and Price, emphasizes how the sender’s and receiver’s knowledge, experience, language, communication styles, stereotypes, and relationships influence both the transmission and interpretation of messages. |
| 2.2 | Effectiveness of Communication Channels | This model, developed by Alistair Cockburn, focuses on the richness of communication channels, which refers to how much information can be transmitted through a medium. Richer channels, such as face-to-face communication, are best for complex, personal information, while simpler channels, like text messages, suit straightforward information. |
| 2.3 | Gulf of Execution and Evaluation | This model, developed by Donald Norman, explains the gap between user expectations and an item’s functionality (gulf of execution), as well as the difficulty users face in interpreting how to interact with it effectively (gulf of evaluation). For example, a car with a self-parking feature may confuse users if the controls are unclear or don’t meet their expectations. |
Motivation Models
People perform better when motivated, and different factors drive motivation. Understanding these factors helps tailor rewards for better engagement.
| Id | Model | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 3.1 | Hygiene and Motivational Factors | Frederick Herzberg identified two key factors in job satisfaction: motivational and hygiene. Motivational factors, like achievement and growth, create job satisfaction, while their absence leads to dissatisfaction. Hygiene factors, such as salary and company policies, cause dissatisfaction when inadequate, but increasing them does not improve satisfaction. |
| 3.2 | Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation | Daniel Pink explains that while extrinsic rewards like salary can motivate people, their effect diminishes once fair compensation is met. For complex tasks, intrinsic motivators—autonomy, mastery, and purpose—are more effective. |
| 3.3 | Theory of Needs | David McClelland’s model suggests that people are driven by three needs: achievement, power, and affiliation. Achievement-oriented individuals seek challenging but attainable goals. Those motivated by power enjoy leading and organizing others. Affiliation-driven individuals seek acceptance and teamwork. The strength of these needs varies based on personal experiences and culture. |
| 3.4 | Theory X, Theory Y, and Theory Z | Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y describe different employee motivations and management styles, later expanded to include Theory Z. - Theory X assumes employees work only for income and lack ambition, requiring a strict, top-down management style, common in labor-intensive industries. - Theory Y assumes employees are intrinsically motivated, benefiting from a coaching-based, participatory management style, often seen in creative fields. - Theory Z (Maslow’s view) emphasizes self-realization and values, while William Ouchi’s version focuses on lifelong job security and employee well-being to boost morale and productivity. |
Change Models
Change models focus on guiding projects through transitions, whether related to systems, behaviors, activities, or cultures. Managing these changes involves planning how to move from the current state to the desired future state. Various models outline the necessary activities for successful change management.
| Id | Model | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 4.1 | Managing Change in Organizations | This is an iterative model with five interconnected elements: Formulate change, Plan change, Implement change, Manage transition, Sustain change. |
| 4.2 | The ADKAR® Model | This model outlines five sequential steps for individuals adapting to change: Awareness (understanding the need), Desire (supporting the change), Knowledge (learning how to change), Ability (practical application), and Reinforcement (sustaining the change). |
| 4.3 | The 8-Step Process for Leading Change | John Kotter’s 8-Step Process for Leading Change is a structured approach for transforming organizations. It involves creating urgency for change, forming a coalition of influential leaders, developing a clear vision, communicating that vision, removing obstacles, achieving quick wins, building on those successes, and anchoring the changes into the organization’s culture to ensure lasting impact. |
| 4.4 | Virginia Satir Change Model | Virginia Satir’s Change Model describes how people experience and cope with change. It starts with the late status quo, where everything feels familiar. A foreign element introduces change, leading to chaos, where performance drops and emotions fluctuate. In the transforming idea stage, people find solutions, and performance improves. The practice and integration stage involves experimenting with new behaviors, leading to higher performance. Finally, the new status quo stabilizes as people adapt to the change. |
| 4.5 | Transition Model | William Bridges’ Transition Model explains the psychological process individuals go through during organizational change. It distinguishes between change (situational) and transition (psychological). The model has three stages: Ending, losing, and letting go, where people experience resistance and emotions like fear and denial; The neutral zone, where frustration, confusion, or creativity may arise as people adjust to the change; and The new beginning, where individuals accept and embrace the change, becoming more skilled and energized. |
Complexity Models
Complexity models help navigate the ambiguity and uncertainty present in projects, which often involve multiple interconnected systems.
| Id | Model | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 5.1 | Cynefin Framework | This framework helps in decision-making by categorizing problems as clear, complicated, complex, chaotic, or unclear. It suggests using best practices, analysis, experimentation, or quick action based on the situation. |
| 5.2 | Stacey Matrix | Ralph Stacey’s matrix, similar to the Cynefin framework, assesses project complexity based on two factors: uncertainty in requirements and uncertainty in technology. Projects are categorized as simple, complicated, complex, or chaotic, guiding the tailoring of methods and practices accordingly. |
Project Team Development Models
Project teams progress through various stages of development, and understanding these stages helps project managers support their growth. The two models in this section illustrate how teams evolve into high-performing units.
| Id | Model | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 6.1 | Tuckman Ladder | The Tuckman Ladder outlines team development stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. |
| 6.2 | Drexler/Sibbet Team Performance Model | This model outlines seven stages of team development: four for team formation (Orientation, Trust Building, Goal Clarification, Commitment) and three for team sustainability (Implementation, High Performance, Renewal). It guides teams from initial alignment to peak performance and adaptation. |
Other Models
| Id | Model | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 7.1 | Conflict Model | The Conflict Model, developed by Ken Thomas and Ralph Kilmann, highlights that conflict is common on projects and can be either healthy or unhealthy. Healthy conflict, when managed well, fosters trust and deeper commitment, while fear of conflict can stifle communication and creativity. Unresolved or poorly handled conflict can lead to dissatisfaction, distrust, and reduced morale. The model identifies six ways to address conflict based on the balance of power between individuals and the desire to maintain good relationships. |
| 7.2 | Negotiation | Steven Covey’s Think Win-Win principle in negotiation emphasizes mutually beneficial outcomes. There are three types of outcomes: Win-win (both parties are satisfied), Win-lose/lose-win (one party wins at the expense of the other), and Lose-lose (both parties lose due to competition over collaboration). A win-win outcome is achieved when parties demonstrate maturity, integrity, trust, and a willingness to understand each other’s perspective and work together to find solutions. |
| 7.3 | Planning | Barry Boehm’s model emphasizes finding the optimal amount of planning for projects, balancing the benefits of reducing risk and uncertainty with the costs of overplanning. While more upfront planning can reduce rework and oversights, excessive planning delays returns, risks losing market share, and may become counterproductive as circumstances change. The sweet spot for planning varies by project, and the model helps identify the point where additional planning becomes inefficient. |
| 7.4 | Process Groups | Project management processes are organized into logical groups of inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs, which are tailored to fit the needs of the organization, stakeholders, and the project. |
| 7.5 | Salience Model | This model identifies stakeholders based on three variables: power to influence, legitimacy of their relationship with the project, and urgency of their claim. These factors help determine stakeholder engagement and their importance to the project. |